Capripoxvirus Infections: Advances in Diagnosis and Strategic Control Measures.

Abstract

Sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV) and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) belong to the genus Capripoxvirus (CaPV) within the family Poxviridae. These transboundary and highly infectious viruses cause substantial economic losses by affecting the productivity of both small and large ruminants. Clinical manifestations include cutaneous lesions (skin nodules and pustular lesions), lymphadenopathy, pneumonia, reduced milk yield, mastitis, infertility and abortion. The diagnosis is based on a combination of clinical signs, virus isolation, serology and PCR/real-time PCR. Recent advancements have significantly improved the sensitivity and specificity of CaPV detection and differentiation. These include multiplexed serological assays, isothermal DNA amplification methods such as recombinase polymerase reaction, CRISPR-Cas12a fluorescence assays and advanced DNA sequencing platforms. In enzootic regions, strategic control measures should include public awareness, vector control, early detection, vaccination, use of ethnoveterinary formulations, veterinary care, strict biosecurity and movement restrictions. The live attenuated vaccines remain the most suitable option for these regions owing to their efficacy. Cross-protective CaPV vaccine strains also support heterologous vaccination strategies. Emerging multivalent and recombinant vaccines offer promising avenues for providing broad protection and simplifying disease management. Overall, it is essential to break the viral transmission cycle to mitigate the economic losses.